The Second Treatise of Government
John Locke’s First Treatise is more technical and theological than the Second, and is often read mainly as preparation for Locke’s positive theory.
Second Treatise: Of Civil GovernmentThis is the core of Locke’s work and the one that has shaped modern political thought. It presents a systematic account of legitimate government.1. State of Nature
- Before government, humans exist in a state of perfect freedom and equality.
- People are governed by the law of nature (reason), which teaches that “no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.”
- Everyone has the right to punish violators of the natural law (executive power of the law of nature).
- However, the state of nature is inconvenient (not necessarily a war of all against all like Hobbes). Problems include:
- Lack of impartial judges.
- Bias in self-judgment.
- Inadequate power to enforce rights.
- Property is central. God gave the world to humanity in common, but individuals acquire private property by mixing their labor with resources (the labor theory of property).
- Example: Picking an apple or tilling land makes it yours, provided you leave “enough and as good” for others (the sufficiency proviso) and do not waste (the spoilage proviso).
- Property rights are natural and pre-political; government exists to protect them.
- People voluntarily leave the state of nature and enter civil society by mutual consent (the social contract).
- They surrender only the right to execute the law of nature themselves, creating a common judge (government) with legislative and executive power.
- Government’s sole legitimate purpose is to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property).
- Power is limited and held in trust for the people. It must rule by standing laws, not arbitrary will.
- Locke prefers a mixed constitution with separation of powers:
- Legislative (supreme, but limited).
- Executive (enforces laws; includes federative power for foreign affairs).
- He does not explicitly call for an independent judiciary but implies judicial functions.
- Absolute monarchy is incompatible with civil society because the monarch remains in the state of nature relative to the people.
- If government violates its trust (e.g., becomes tyrannical, invades property, rules arbitrarily), it forfeits its legitimacy.
- The people have the right to resist and dissolve government and establish a new one.
- This is a conservative right: revolution is justified only when government clearly breaks the trust, not for minor grievances.
- Locke justifies the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in these terms.
- Liberalism: Emphasized individual rights, consent of the governed, rule of law, and limited government.
- American Founding: Enormous influence on the Declaration of Independence (“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” echoes Locke) and the U.S. Constitution.
- Contrasts with Hobbes (more pessimistic state of nature, absolute sovereign) and Rousseau (more communal general will).
- Later critiqued by figures like Hume (on social contract), Marx (on property), and modern communitarians.
The Two Treatises remains a foundational text for understanding modern democratic and constitutional thought.